Appeared 400 000 years ago, spread throughout Europe and Near East when climate was still virtually tropical. Lived in caves, hunted in groups. Could make tools eg scrapers, axes and would cook (some) food. Big noses, extremely muscular. Named after the Neander valley in Germany where bones first recognized as being distinct from Homo sapiens.

But then the Ice Age came, and conditions deteriorated. Plus Homo sapiens from the East began competing for hunting grounds and caves. Homo sapiens had more language and manual skills (could sew hides together!), probably just more flexible at dealing with changing conditions. DNA shows that we have Neanderthal genes, so there must have been some interbreeding – but voluntary, or rape!?

From In Our Time, Radio 4